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Partitioning using Master Boot Record (MBR)
File systems including FAT32 (File Allocation Table)
First-stage boot loaders and motherboard firmware, including BIOS
DOS fdisk
File systems including ext2
Journalling file systems including ext4
Partitioning using Globally Unique IDentifiers (GUID) Partion Table (GPT)
Partitioning drives with GNU parted and util-linux: fdisk and cfdisk, and lsblk, wipefs and fsck
Formatting partitions using util-linux: mkfs
More first-stage boot loaders: UEFI and coreboot/libreboot
The boot partition and second-stage boot loaders, including GRUB
Loading the Linux kernel from the boot partition
Directory layout on Linux: /boot, /sbin, /proc, /sys, /etc and /lib
The init process, openrc and runit, and mounting using /etc/fstab
Using swap partitions with util-linux: mkswap, swapon and swapoff, and swapfiles
/dev/shm, /tmp and tmpfs
Batch processing
Interrupts
Concurrency control
Pseudo-character device files
Loop devices
Interactive login shells, read-eval-print loop (REPL), the Bourne shell implementations ash and dash, including commands: cd, fg, exit, jobs
Keyboards and locales
Other util-linux programs, including lscpu; more; mount and umount; dmesg; hwclock; kill; whereis; cal; fallocate; su; chsh
Linux modules using kmod: lsmod, insmod, rmmod, modprobe and modinfo
GNU Core Utilities: Exploring folders using ls and dir, vdir, dircolors, du and stat
GNU Core Utilities: Reading files using cat, tac, head and tail, and nl, od, base32, base64 and basenc
GNU Core Utilities: Writing to files using cp, dd and install, mv, rm and shred, mkdir, rmdir, touch and ln, readlink, mknod, mkfifo, mktemp, sync, link, unlink, truncate, split and csplit
GNU Core Utilities: Reading and transforming text using tr, cut, split, ptx, sort, tsort, expand, unexpand and uniq, fmt, pr and fold
GNU Core Utilities: Reading from multiple files using paste, comm and join
GNU Core Utilities: Summarising files with wc and checksums (sum, cksum, b2sum, md5sum, sha1sum, sha224sum, sha256sum, sha512sum
GNU Core Utilities: Modifying command invocation with chroot (and jails), env, nice, nohup, stdbuf and timeout
GNU Core Utilities: Getting system information with df, date, uptime, uname, env, printenv, nproc, pwd, stty, tty, printenv
GNU Core Utilities: Maths with seq, factor and numfmt
GNU Core Utilities: Conditionals with test, expr, true and false
GNU Core Utilities: SELinux with runcon and chcon
GNU Core Utilities: Printing with echo, printf and yes
GNU Core Utilities: tee
GNU Core Utilities: sleep
Home directories in /root and /home/
/etc/passwd and /etc/shadow, and shadow-utils:
Setting passwords and logging out with logout and shadow-utils: passwd
Making and removing other users with shadow-utils: useradd and suserdel
Using groups with shadow utils: usermod, usermod, groupadd, groupdel, groupmod, groups, gpasswd
GNU Core Utilities: who and whoami, chmod, chgrp, chown, users, logname, id, groups, pinky
Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)
GNU findutils: xargs, find, locate, updatedb
ed, ex and vi
GNU nano
procps with pgrep, pkill, pidwait, sysctl, free, top, watch, ps
GNU man-db: man and whatis
grep
sed
sudo, the /etc/sudoers file and disabling root login
GNU which
awk
Bourne-Again Shell (bash), including commands: history
csh and tsch
ksh
zsh
File archiving using GNU pax-archive: pax, tar and cpio
Compression using GNU zip (gzip): gzip, gunzip and zcat
tar and zip
Systemd
cron
The motherboard has the first-stage boot loader. This if firmware with its own read-only memory.